EU Drug Market: New psychoactive substances — Distribution and supply in Europe: Semi-synthetic cannabinoids

This resource is part of EU Drug Market: New psychoactive substances — In-depth analysis by the EMCDDA and Europol.

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Last update: 27 June 2024

Overview

Unlike synthetic cannabinoids, the semi-synthetic cannabinoids are mostly produced from cannabidiol extracted from low-THC cannabis (hemp) – the production and availability of which has proliferated in recent years in the United States and Europe.

In 2022, semi-synthetic cannabinoids, which are not controlled under the international drug conventions, started to appear on the European drug market. The first was hexahydrocannabinol (HHC) in May. Five other semi-synthetic cannabinoids, HHC acetate (HHC-O), hexahydrocannabiphorol (HHC-P), tetrahydrocannabidiol (H4-CBD​), tetrahydrocannabiphorol (THC-P) and hexahydrocannabihexol (HHCH) have also been identified.

HHC appears to have first been sold in the United States in or around September 2021, although the precise date is unknown. HHC is one of a number of semi-synthetic cannabinoids that have recently been sold openly in the US as legal replacements for cannabis and delta-9-THC, beginning with delta-8-tetrahydrocannabinol (delta-8-THC) in 2019. This new market is associated with:

• the legalisation of hemp cultivation in the US in 2018;
• subsequent abundant or surplus supply of hemp and hemp-derived cannabidiol (CBD), which can be used as a precursor for semi-synthetic cannabinoids;
• the interpretation by producers that cannabinoids derived from hemp are not controlled under the US Federal Controlled Substances Act, so long as the final product does not contain more than 0.3 % delta-9-THC by dry weight.

Since then, these products have also begun to proliferate in Europe. At least initially, bulk quantities of HHC and some other semi-synthetic cannabinoids, in the form of oils or distillates, as well as consumer products were imported into Europe.

These substances are sold openly as legal replacements for THC and cannabis in a range of highly attractive branded and unbranded products – some of which are sold as ‘legal highs’. These products include hemp sprayed or mixed with semi-synthetic cannabinoids – which looks and smells like genuine herbal cannabis – as well as vapes and edibles. The marketing and advertising of these products often make direct comparison to the effects of THC and cannabis.

The size and scale of the retail market for semi-synthetic cannabinoids is unknown. Products are sold openly in a range of brick-and-mortar and online shops, particularly those specialised in selling low-THC cannabis and CBD products, as well as vaping products (‘smoke shops’). Initial indications from surface web monitoring in early 2023 suggest that retailers can be found in, or ship to, most EU Member States. However, the control of some semi-synthetic cannabinoids recently in some countries may have changed the situation. Producers, retailers and consumers may also buy bulk oils and finished products from suppliers in the United States and import them into Europe.

Concerns exist that, potentially, there could be high demand for semi-synthetic cannabinoid products. This includes from existing cannabis users and new consumers attracted to its effects and legal status – some of them young or otherwise inexperienced in drug use. In some cases, ease of access to products, such as from vending machines and high street CBD and vape shops, may promote use (see Photos HHC disposable vapes sold in a vending machine alongside nicotine-containing vaping products in Künzelsau, Baden-Württemberg, Germany, November 2022).

Consumers may also be attracted to the different effects that semi-synthetic cannabinoids are claimed to have compared with cannabis and other THC products. While the accuracy of these claims have not been assessed, in the case of HHC they include assertions that it is ‘less intoxicating’, which has led to it being described sometimes as ‘cannabis lite’ (not to be confused with the low-THC ‘cannabis light’ marketed primarily in Italy since about 2018). In addition, vapes and edibles are an easy and discreet way to use HHC, especially in public settings. Vape cartridges are also supplied using the standard connectors that fit many electronic cigarettes on the market.

Information on the retail prices of semi-synthetic cannabinoid products is currently limited. However, based on test purchases and internet monitoring, they appear to be comparable with at least some illicit cannabis products. For example, low-THC cannabis flower containing HHC sells for approximately EUR 6-10 per gram (depending on the reported strength of the product), which is similar to the average cost of illicit cannabis herb in Europe.

The effects of semi-synthetic cannabinoids in humans have not been studied, but anecdotal consumer reports suggest they may be subjectively similar to those of cannabis. However, some products are available in forms that may deliver high doses, raising concerns about the possible public health implications of the availability of these substances.

These developments appear to mark the first major new changes in the market for ‘legal’ replacements for cannabis since Spice products containing synthetic cannabinoids emerged in Europe over 15 years ago.

Production

Some bulk quantities of oils or distillates, as well as consumer products containing HHC and other semi-synthetic cannabinoids, are imported from the United States. It is presumed that the bulk quantities are used to make consumer products in Europe. More recently, there are indications that bulk quantities of some semi-synthetic cannabinoids may also be produced in Europe from CBD extracted from low-THC cannabis (see Box Production of semi-synthetic cannabinoid products in Europe: Operation ‘Dream Factory’).

Detailed information on the production of HHC and a number of other semi-synthetic cannabinoids can be found in a recent EMCDDA technical report (EMCDDA, 2023).

Situation

The EMCDDA currently monitors six semi-synthetic cannabinoids. This includes four that were reported for the first time in 2023 (see Table Number of countries reporting detections of semi-synthetic cannabinoids, as notified to the EU Early Warning System, 2022-2023).

There is limited information on this group of substances, given their recent emergence on the drug market.

In 2022, the vast majority of seizures of semi-synthetic cannabinoids reported by EU Member States to the EU Early Warning System were of HHC (see Figure Number of seizures of HHC (all forms) reported to the EU Early Warning System, European Union, 2022). These included 47.1 kilograms of herbal material – typically consistent with low-THC cannabis – containing HHC and 96 litres of liquids, mostly bulk oils used to create consumer products. Seizures of consumer products, particularly disposable vapes, were also reported.

Most of the seizures were relatively small, but at least three seizures were indicative of a potentially larger trade involving the production of finished products in Europe.

• In August 2022, Italian authorities seized just over 33 kilograms of material containing HHC, consisting of low-THC cannabis flower and resin and bulk quantities of oils or distillates. In addition, 68 kilograms of illicit herbal cannabis containing delta-9-THC (and no HHC) was found.
• In December 2022, Polish authorities seized 95 litres of HHC oil that originated from the United States (see Photo One-litre bottle of HHC oil seized at Warsaw Chopin Airport, Warsaw, Poland, December 2022). Laboratory analysis identified HHC and delta-8-THC in the oil, which was presumably intended to produce consumer products.
• In February 2023, German customs seized 10 kilograms of HHC liquid en route to Italy from the Netherlands. The liquid was reported to have originated from the United States.

A range of branded and unbranded products containing HHC are available in Europe. They include:

• low-THC cannabis flower and resin that has been sprayed or mixed with HHC (see Photo ‘Purple Haze’ product consisting of low-THC cannabis flower containing HHC);
• ready-to-use disposable vape pens, e-liquids and e-liquid cartridges for use in electronic cigarettes (see Photo ‘Imperial Garden’ 1-ml blueberry flavour HHC vape cartridge, seized by Swiss customs in October 2022);
• edibles, especially flavoured sweets (gummies and marshmallows) (see Photo ‘HHC Gummies Cola taste’ containing teddy bear-shaped HHC-infused gummies, seized by Swiss customs in October 2022) and tinctures resembling food supplements;
• HHC oils.

Low-THC cannabis products containing HHC are marketed in a range of sophisticated, attractive, brightly coloured designs. In some cases, these are advertised as not for human consumption. In other cases, they may be sold as unbranded products. Low-THC cannabis flower containing HHC is also marketed using the names of popular cannabis strains such as Afghan Kush, Amnesia, BubbleGum Kush, Strawberry Kush, Pineapple Express and Purple Haze, or mention or allude to the same effects as these strains.

Some seizures of HHC-O and HHC-P were also reported in 2022. The most notable was a seizure of 1 kilogram of HHC-O liquid that originated from the United States.

Source data

All of the source data used in graphics and data tables may be found in our Data catalogue.

References

Consult the list of references used in this module.