EU Drug Market: New psychoactive substances — Distribution and supply in Europe: Synthetic cannabinoids

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This resource is part of EU Drug Market: New psychoactive substances — In-depth analysis by the EMCDDA and Europol.

Last update: 27 June 2024

Overview

Synthetic cannabinoids are sold as ‘legal’ replacements for cannabis, but may sometimes also be sought in their own right as strong intoxicants. They are used by marginalised groups, such as people experiencing homelessness, prisoners and other vulnerable populations, because they cause profound intoxication, are easy to conceal and are cheaper than other drugs.

They are also used by people subject to drug testing, such as prisoners or those in drug treatment, because some routine tests cannot detect synthetic cannabinoids that are new to the drug market. In addition, in some parts of Europe, there has been an increase in reports of synthetic cannabinoids being vaped using electronic cigarettes; in some cases, individuals are unaware they are using synthetic cannabinoids because the products are mis-sold as containing THC or cannabidiol (CBD).

Synthetic cannabinoids may be available in several forms in Europe (EMCDDA, 2021a). Commonly, synthetic cannabinoids are sprayed onto herbal material or tobacco and smoked. Since 2020, low-THC cannabis (hemp) adulterated with synthetic cannabinoids has also been identified. In addition, the substances may be sold as e-liquids for vaping. Infusing paper (such as letters and photos) and clothing (such as underwear) is a common way to smuggle them into prisons. The items are then smoked, vaped or boiled to extract the substances. Synthetic cannabinoids may also be sold in the form of powders or occasionally tablets.

Synthetic cannabinoids can pose a high risk of poisoning, both because of their high potency and because the amount of cannabinoid can vary greatly in the product, leading to ‘hot pockets’ where the substance is highly concentrated (Moosmann et al., 2015). Drinking these substances when extracted from clothing poses similar risks, as users may have no control or knowledge of the dose they are taking.

Production

Most synthetic cannabinoids on the EU drug market are produced as bulk powders in China. However, the processing of these bulk powders into consumer products does take place in Europe. Recent signals suggest that the synthesis of synthetic cannabinoids may also be starting to occur to some degree in Europe. This could be partly driven by the generic controls on synthetic cannabinoids introduced in China in July 2021, which banned the production and supply of most substances currently on the market.

Between 2017 and 2021, the five dismantled synthetic cannabinoid production facilities reported to the European Reporting Instrument on Sites related to Synthetic Production (ERISSP) were processing and packaging sites. Reports were provided by Germany, Spain, the Netherlands and Romania. Additional reports were obtained from national authorities and open-source information monitoring. These included reports of synthetic cannabinoid processing and packaging sites in the Netherlands, Hungary and Cyprus.

In the Netherlands, one production site was dismantled in 2018 on the premises of a commercial company. The synthetic cannabinoids were mixed and packed in bags with the ‘Man-light’ brand name. In 2020, another site was dismantled at a different location, where synthetic cannabinoids were mixed with herbal carrier material, packaged and distributed by post, mainly to Germany (National Police of the Netherlands, 2022).

In Hungary, the production of papers impregnated with synthetic cannabinoids and herbal smoking mixtures was discovered in 2021, at a site where seizures of acetone were recorded. Authorities believe that a significant proportion of infused papers seized in Hungary are produced within the country, using imported powders (EMCDDA, unpublished).

In Cyprus, a synthetic cannabinoid processing facility was seized in 2022. Acetone was found alongside a few kilograms of cannabinoid powders (JWH-210, ADB-BUTINACA, FUB-144 and MDMB-4en-PINACA) and illicit drugs (EMCDDA, unpublished).

Importantly, in 2023, two sites were dismantled where there were signs that the synthesis of synthetic cannabinoids may have occurred, rather than just processing and packaging. These sites were located in Greece and Spain.

In Greece, a storage warehouse and a makeshift laboratory were seized following an investigation by the Greek Police in cooperation with the Lithuanian Police, Europol and the DEA (the US Drug Enforcement Administration), in relation to a seizure in Lithuania of eight parcels originating in Greece. The Greek production site was fulfilling orders for Europe (Germany, France, Lithuania, Poland and Portugal), the United States and Australia via an encrypted communication platform. The orders were sent via postal and courier services and payments were made using cryptocurrency. In total, 41.5 kilograms of powder and 3.5 litres of synthetic cannabinoids were seized, alongside 6 kilograms of synthetic cathinones, 700 grams of cannabis herb and resin, 200 grams of CBD/cannabigerol and 17 benzodiazepine tablets. Five individuals were arrested, including four Greek nationals and one Albanian citizen (EMCDDA, unpublished) (see Photos Seized warehouse and laboratory producing synthetic cannabinoids in Greece, 2023).

Seized warehouse and laboratory producing synthetic cannabinoids in Greece, 2023. Source: Greek Police, Central Anti-drug Co-ordination Unit – National Intelligence Unit (SODN-EMP), General Chemical State Laboratory
Seized warehouse and laboratory producing synthetic cannabinoids in Greece, 2023. Source: Greek Police, Central Anti-drug Co-ordination Unit – National Intelligence Unit (SODN-EMP), General Chemical State Laboratory.

In Spain, following an international investigation triggered by US seizures originating from the country, a production facility was dismantled in Barcelona (1). This produced synthetic cannabinoids (ADB-BUTINACA, ADB-FUBIACA, ADB-B-5BR-INACA, A-FUBIACA and JWH-210), cathinones (alpha-PHiP) and opioids (unspecified) for export to North America, Oceania and EU countries via parcel services. The site was equipped with a tableting machine and a sophisticated production and logistics dispatch system resembling a supermarket display. It appears that some degree of manufacturing was occurring in the laboratory, given that precursors were seized, alongside laboratory equipment and solvents. Processing and packaging of end products did take place at the site, with over 7.5 million doses of new psychoactive substances seized. Three members of the same family were arrested, who used a Barcelona-based company with Hungarian connections for shipping (Spanish Police, 2023).

Situation

The EMCDDA currently monitors 247 synthetic cannabinoids, making them the largest group of new psychoactive substances in Europe (25 % of all substances). This includes five that were notified in 2023.

Between 2016 and 2020, the number of new synthetic cannabinoids appearing on the market was stable at around 10 per year, down from an average of 27 per year during the peak of the ‘legal highs’ phenomenon between 2011 and 2015. However, in 2021 and 2022 there was an increase in the number notified, with 15 and 22 substances reported, respectively. Similar increases have also been reported in the United States (Krotulski et al., 2021). These new cannabinoids have possibly been developed to circumvent the generic controls introduced in China in 2021.

Laboratory studies of the effects of some of these new cannabinoids suggest that while some are active, others may not be inactive or may even be precursors. Notably, in 2023, the number of newly reported synthetic cannabinoids appearing on the market for the first time fell to just five substances – a 14-year low (see Figure Number of synthetic cannabinoids notified to the EU Early Warning System for the first time, European Union, 2005-2023).

Number of synthetic cannabinoids notified to the EU Early Warning System for the first time, European Union, 2005-2023

In 2022, 4 543 seizures of synthetic cannabinoids were reported to the EU Early Warning System, which accounts for around 13 % of the total number of seizures reported during that year by the EU Member States (see Figures Seizures of synthetic cannabinoids reported to the EU Early Warning System: trends in number of seizures and quantities of powders and herbal material seized, European Union, 2005-2022). Most of these detections were in the form of herbal material (3 056 cases, 89 %; 233.5 kilograms) and powders (385 cases, 11 %; 504 kilograms) (see also Figures Number and quantity of synthetic cannabinoids seized in the form of herbal material, European Union, 2022 and Number and quantity of synthetic cannabinoids seized in the form of powder, European Union, 2022).

Seizures of synthetic cannabinoids reported to the EU Early Warning System: quantities of powders and herbal material seized, European Union, 2005-2022
Seizures of synthetic cannabinoids reported to the EU Early Warning System: trends in number of seizures, European Union, 2005-2022
Number of synthetic cannabinoids seized in the form of herbal material, European Union, 2022
Quantity of synthetic cannabinoids seized in the form of herbal material, European Union, 2022
Number of synthetic cannabinoids seized in the form of powder, European Union, 2022
Quantity of synthetic cannabinoids seized in the form of powder, European Union, 2022

In 2022, the quantity of herbal material containing synthetic cannabinoids seized in the European Union remained significantly below the peak quantity seized in 2015 (see Figures Seizures of synthetic cannabinoids reported to the EU Early Warning System: trends in number of seizures and quantities of powders and herbal material seized, European Union, 2005-2022). This probably reflects a decrease in the large-scale processing of synthetic cannabinoids into herbal smoking mixtures, particularly the ‘legal high’ products that typified a large part of the NPS market in Europe between 2008 and 2015.

The quantity of powder containing synthetic cannabinoids seized in the European Union increased significantly in 2022 to the highest level since 2013 (504 vs 596 kilograms). However, 457 kilograms (91 %) of the total amount of powder in 2022 was from four large seizures by Dutch customs of a single cannabinoid, JWH-210. The source of this cannabinoid is unknown, although it has been controlled in China since 2015.

The number seizures of synthetic cannabinoids and the quantity seized varies across Europe. In 2022, most of the seizures occurred in Bulgaria and Germany, with the greatest quantities of powders seized in the Netherlands by customs, and the greatest quantities of herbal material seized in Germany and the Netherlands (see Figures Seizures of synthetic cannabinoids reported to the EU Early Warning System by country: numbers of seizures, quantity of powder seized and quantity of herbal material, European Union, 2022).

Seizures of synthetic cannabinoids reported to the EU Early Warning System by country: numbers of seizures, European Union, 2022
Seizures of synthetic cannabinoids reported to the EU Early Warning System by country: quantity of powder seized, European Union, 2022
Seizures of synthetic cannabinoids reported to the EU Early Warning System by country: quantity of herbal material seized, European Union, 2022

Since 2020, there has been an increase in reports of herbal material where THC or other natural cannabinoids, suggestive of low-THC hemp, were found alongside synthetic cannabinoids. At least 13 European countries have reported such cases, with most reports coming from Germany and Sweden. Such adulterated products may be more widely available but go undetected. During 2020, over 36 kilograms of adulterated herbal material suggestive of hemp was reported; this increased to 200 kilograms in 2021 before falling to 71.5 kilograms in 2022.

The reason for the adulteration is not entirely clear, but increased cultivation of low-THC industrial hemp in Switzerland has led to oversupply and a sharp drop in its price (Von Schläpfer et al., 2020). Low-THC herbal cannabis products have also become more commonly available in some EU countries. The adulterated cannabis appears similar in appearance to natural cannabis, and can be mis-sold as cannabis to unsuspecting consumers. Synthetic cannabinoids are highly potent substances, and adulterated products carry poisoning risks.

An additional concern is that cannabis edibles (foods, often in the form of ‘sweets’ that are typically infused with cannabis extract) have become more apparent on the illicit European market since 2021. In addition to the risks that these products pose because of their THC content and the possibility that they may be mistaken for legitimate commercial products, especially by children, there are concerns that some of these products may contain synthetic cannabinoids. Since 2019, at least five countries have reported the identification of edibles containing synthetic cannabinoids that were in the form of sweets (gummies). In Ireland, these edibles are often found in commercial packaging similar to existing branding of sweets (see Photos Edibles containing synthetic cannabinoids seized in Ireland). According to Irish authorities, these sweets have taken on a more professional and commercial appearance, which may suggest a wider distribution strategy. The packaging is often labelled as being ‘cannabis infused’ or containing THC, although many of these sweets do not contain THC. Laboratory analysis by Forensic Science Ireland has found that more than 50 % of the sweets tested in 2022 did not contain THC, but contained synthetic cannabinoids instead. In some cases, use of these products by young people has led to poisonings requiring hospitalisation (Forensic Science Ireland, 2023).

Edibles containing synthetic cannabinoids seized in Ireland
Edibles containing synthetic cannabinoids seized in Ireland. Source: Forensic Science Ireland.

(1) The operation ‘Canalla-Electrón’ could be carried out thanks to the information posted on the NPS IONICS alert exchange platform of the International Narcotics Control Board (GRIDS Programme), the intervention of the Spanish National Police, the Deputy Directorate of Customs Surveillance and the coordination of the Intelligence Center against Terrorism and Organized Crime (CITCO).

Source data

All of the source data used in graphics and data tables may be found in our Data catalogue.

 

References

Consult the list of references used in this module.


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