EU Drug Market: New psychoactive substances — Key findings and threat assessment
This resource is part of EU Drug Market: New psychoactive substances — In-depth analysis by the EMCDDA and Europol.
General
New psychoactive substances affect regions, countries and localities in different ways. The specific types of new psychoactive substances that emerge and the threats they pose are shaped by global supply chains and local drug situations, both of which change over time.
Record quantities of new psychoactive substances were seized in Europe between 2020 and 2022. Large seizures of a few substances, notably cathinone stimulants and ketamine, accounted for most of the seized material.
There are signs that the number of new psychoactive substances entering the market for the first time may be slowing. The reason for this apparent decline and its significance for the market is unclear and likely complex.
Highly potent substances, such as synthetic opioids, continue to emerge. These are easy to conceal and traffic, as a few grams can make thousands of doses. As they are not controlled under drug legislation they can be manufactured, sold and transported relatively freely.
An increasing number of ‘old’ new psychoactive substances have recently re-emerged in Europe. Some of these, such as the cathinones, have been seized in industrial quantities. The re-emergence of substances appears to be linked to attempts to exploit differences in national drug laws and the spread of new psychoactive substances globally.
Production and precursors
China and India continue to be major suppliers of new psychoactive substances to Europe. Since 2019, production in India has diversified into synthetic cathinones, ketamine-like substances and, more recently, xylazine.
EU production of new psychoactive substances has expanded and is increasingly sophisticated and diversified. In particular, there has been a significant increase in the production of synthetic cathinones. Recent signals also suggest that synthetic cannabinoids are being synthetised in the European Union. This may be linked to the recent generic control of synthetic cannabinoids in China.
Few NPS precursors are controlled, except those for some fentanyl derivatives. This may explain, for example, the increase in cathinone production in Europe, as the precursors are sold openly by companies in China and India.
Since 2022, a new market in semi-synthetic cannabinoids has emerged. These substances are synthesised from cannabidiol (CBD), which is extracted from low-THC cannabis (hemp). While initially the supply of bulk quantities of semi-synthetic cannabinoids came from the United States, there are signs that they are also being produced in Europe.
Low-THC cannabis therefore has become a source of CBD for semi-synthetic cannabinoid production, but it is also used as a substrate for semi-synthetic cannabinoids and synthetic cannabinoids.
Substances
Cathinones
Until around 2019, most bulk quantities of synthetic cathinones seized at the external EU borders originated in China. However, since then, production has also spread to India, where they appear to be produced on a large scale. The quantity of synthetic cathinone seized in Europe rose sharply between 2020 and 2022, increasing to 26.5 tonnes in 2022. This increase was driven by a small number of large seizures by customs agencies in the Netherlands and Spain, originating in India. In addition, the production of synthetic cathinones in parts of Europe continues to grow.
There are signs that a small number of synthetic cathinones are becoming established in stimulant markets in Europe. Active monitoring is required to better assess the situation and identify and reduce potential health risks.
Cannabinoids
The number of new synthetic cannabinoids appearing on the market significantly increased in 2021 and 2022, probably due to efforts to circumvent the generic controls implemented in China in 2021. As a result, during this short time, producers innovated by introducing many new cannabinoids from new chemical groups onto the market. In 2023, this fell to five substances. The reason for this fall is unclear but it may relate to failed attempts to produce suitable replacement substances or be due to a drop in demand from suppliers in Europe.
Since 2020, low-THC cannabis adulterated with synthetic cannabinoids has been identified in at least 13 countries in Europe. In 2021, around 50 % of all seizures of herbal material containing synthetic cannabinoids were of low-THC cannabis adulterated with synthetic cannabinoids, but this proportion fell to 30 % in 2022.
Since 2021, products sold as cannabis or THC edibles but containing highly potent synthetic cannabinoids have been identified in Europe. These products may be particularly attractive to young people. They pose a high risk to users’ health, and cases of severe poisoning have been recorded in the European Union after the ingestion of sweets infused with synthetic cannabinoids.
Several semi-synthetic cannabinoids (e.g. hexahydrocannabinol, HHC) have emerged on the EU market in the last few years. They appear to be made from naturally occurring cannabinoids, such as CBD, and are sold openly in a broad range of consumer product forms. These include vapes and edibles that may be particularly attractive to young people.
Opioids
Following the steep decline in fentanyl derivatives appearing in Europe since 2018, the equally potent nitazene opioids have replaced them. Carfentanil, however, continues to be an issue in the Baltic region.
There are signs that synthetic opioids are being seen more often in some national drug markets, and concerns that they may become more prevalent in Europe. The reasons are not fully understood and may include a range of factors such as disruptions to supply.
While sporadic, the mis-selling or adulteration of heroin and other established opioids with synthetic opioids may be increasing in Europe. Such events increase the risk of life-threatening overdose for consumers, and can manifest as outbreaks that occur without warning.
Since 2021, synthetic opioids mixed with the animal sedative and analgesic xylazine (‘tranq-dope’) have been identified in Europe. More recently, the mixing of synthetic opioids with benzodiazepines (‘benzo-dope’) has been identified in Europe. There has also been an increase in identifications of xylazine during 2022-2023. The mixing of synthetic opioids with these substances appears to be copied from dealers in North America. Although the data are limited, concerns exist over fake medicines, particularly oxycodone, that contain new opioids.
Benzodiazepines
New benzodiazepines continue to be used to make fake versions of legitimate medicines, such as Xanax, and sold on the darknet and surface web. There are concerns that criminals could exploit restrictions on the prescription of benzodiazepine medicines, over concerns about their abuse, by supplying fake medicines to meet demand. In addition, similar to the use of synthetic cannabinoids, concerns also exist over the potential spread of new benzodiazepines to prisons in Europe.
References
Consult the list of references used in this module.