New psychoactive substances – the current situation in Europe (European Drug Report 2025)
The market for new psychoactive substances is characterised by the large number of substances that have emerged, with new compounds being detected each year. On this page, you can find an overview of the drug situation for new psychoactive substances in Europe, supported by information from the EU Early Warning System on seizures and substances detected for the first time in Europe. New substances covered include synthetic and semi-synthetic cannabinoids, synthetic cathinones, new synthetic opioids and nitazenes.
This page is part of the European Drug Report 2025, the EUDA’s annual overview of the drug situation in Europe.
Last update: 5 June 2025
Unprecedented volumes, potent new substances and unintentional use raise concerns
The market for new psychoactive substances is characterised by the large number of substances that have emerged, with new compounds being detected each year. The term ‘new psychoactive substances’ covers a broad range of substance types that are not controlled by international drug control conventions, although some of them may be subject to national regulatory measures. For the second year in a row, law enforcement agencies in the EU Member States reported a record quantity of new psychoactive substances to the EU Early Warning System, amounting to 41.4 tonnes imported or seized.
The most recent data show that drug producers continue to create new substances to avoid legal controls, with 47 new psychoactive substances notified for the first time in 2024. This is close to the annual number typically reported between 2016 and 2022. In addition, around 350 previously reported new substances were detected on the market in 2023, albeit typically in small amounts.
In general, the risks to health of these novel compounds are poorly understood, although some clearly pose an acute risk to consumers of experiencing severe or even fatal poisonings or other health problems. Over time, legislative controls and other regulatory measures taken in Europe and non-EU source countries seem to have contributed to a reduction in the number of new psychoactive substances appearing for the first time annually, particularly those that have been specifically targeted, such as fentanyl derivatives and synthetic cannabinoids. Other substances, however, designed to evade legislation, continue to emerge, with China and India remaining important source countries for these substances or the precursors that are required to produce them.
Potential poisonings from synthetic cannabinoids remain a concern
In 2024, European countries identified 20 new cannabinoids, 18 of which were semi-synthetic cannabinoids, representing over 40 % of the new substances first reported to the EU Early Warning System that year.
Despite signs of a significant reduction in the availability of synthetic cannabinoids in 2023, these substances remain a public health threat, particularly affecting vulnerable populations, such as people in prison. Synthetic cannabinoids are often highly potent and carry poisoning risks. These compounds may also be mis-sold or used to adulterate cannabis and semi-synthetic cannabinoid products without consumers’ knowledge, increasing health risks. This can include cannabis edibles, which are foods, often in the form of sweets that are typically infused with cannabis extract that have become more available on the illicit market in Europe since 2021.
Following China’s implementation of generic legal control measures in July 2021, the supply of nearly all known synthetic cannabinoids to Europe was disrupted, reducing the availability of dominant compounds such as MDMB-4en-PINACA and ADB-BUTINACA. Producers responded by introducing new compounds such as the OXIZIDs, whose use never became widespread. In addition, there are indications that these substances are now being manufactured in Europe, with reports in 2023 of their production in a small number of seized illicit laboratories and the seizure of over 148 kilograms of MDMB-INACA precursor (Figure 7.1).
Source: Greek Police, Central Anti-drug Co-ordination Unit – National Intelligence Unit (SODN-EMP), General Chemical State Laboratory.
The availability of synthetic cannabinoids in Europe may be affected by several factors, including changes in domestic production, the possible re-emergence of previously popular older compounds and the emergence of new large-scale production locations outside of China. In parallel to the developments in the synthetic cannabinoid market, the availability of semi-synthetic cannabinoids grew following the legalisation of the production and sale of hemp in the United States in 2018.
Semi-synthetic cannabinoids carry unknown health risks for consumers
Semi-synthetic cannabinoids are chemically modified forms of the cannabinoids found in the cannabis plant. They were first reported in Europe in 2022, where they were marketed as legal alternatives to cannabis and delta-9-THC. By the end of 2024, 24 semi-synthetic cannabinoids had been identified on drug markets in Europe. These substances have spread rapidly and action has been taken to control them, with HHC (hexahydrocannabinol), the first identified, reported in 27 European countries and listed as a controlled drug in at least 22 EU Member States. It was recommended for international control by the World Health Organization’s Expert Committee on Drug Dependence in November 2024. Other semi-synthetic cannabinoids also widely available in Europe include hexahydrocannabinol-O-acetate (HHC-O), hexahydrocannabiphorol (HHC-P), delta-9-tetrahydrocannabiphoro (delta-9-THCP), and hexahydrocannabiphorol acetate (HHC-P-O-A).
At first, semi-synthetic cannabinoids were imported from the United States, now, however, they are also being produced in Europe (Figure 7.2). Production has also evolved from CBD-derived compounds from low-THC cannabis, such as HHC, to now also include apparently fully synthetic products such as HHC-P.
Source: DIICOT – Iasi Territorial Service, operation ‘Dream Factory’.
Although the effects of semi-synthetic cannabinoids on humans remain poorly studied, reports suggest they are similar to those of cannabis, with risks of adverse reactions ranging from mild to severe poisoning, sometimes requiring treatment in hospital. Some countries report increasing numbers of poisoning cases involving these substances, but systematic reporting is not currently available. The pharmacological similarity of semi-synthetic cannabinoids to delta-9-THC raises concerns about their potential to trigger psychotic episodes as well as their abuse and dependence potential.
Semi-synthetic cannabinoids are widely available through online and, in some countries, physical retail locations, including vape shops and specialty stores selling low-THC cannabis and CBD products. They may also be sold in convenience stores (kiosks) and vending machines in some countries. The main products are flavoured edibles and vapes as well as low-THC cannabis that has been sprayed or mixed with the cannabinoids. Their accessibility and perceived legal status may attract both cannabis users and first-time users, potentially including youth and children. The resemblance of edibles to common foods, especially sweets, also raises significant concerns about accidental consumption, particularly by children.
Laboratory analysis has found that products can differ widely in the concentrations of semi-synthetic cannabinoids present, with some containing very high amounts. Products may include undeclared cannabinoids, such as delta-9-THC or delta-8-THC, or novel semi-synthetic compounds, at varying concentrations. The semi-synthetic cannabinoids present – which may differ in potency – and their concentrations may vary significantly between products and batches. Overall, this variability and unpredictability poses a potential risk of poisoning to consumers.
The rapid spread of vapes and edibles – especially gummies – is particularly concerning from a public health perspective. Their accessibility and appeal may attract new, possibly younger, consumers who might not otherwise use or have access to illicit cannabis or want to smoke cannabinoids. In addition, the slower absorption of cannabinoids from edibles and the later onset of initial effects compared with vaping or smoking can lead to users consuming multiple portions, risking toxic doses. This may be compounded by consumers often lacking awareness of proper dosing or consuming more than recommended, further increasing poisoning risks. In June 2024, Hungary reported an outbreak of 30 acute non-fatal poisonings linked to gummies containing two potent semi-synthetic cannabinoids.
Synthetic cathinones: large-scale imports and EU production creating wider availability
Synthetic cathinones have become established as replacements for stimulants such as amphetamine and cocaine in some parts of Europe. While inadvertent consumption in drug mixtures and tablets remains a concern, some consumers may consider these different stimulants to be functionally equivalent in terms or effects and intentionally seek them out. The market has evolved significantly since the 2014-2015 ‘legal highs’ phenomenon, when nearly 30 new cathinones emerged each year, compared with just seven in 2024. Over 60 previously reported synthetic cathinones were also detected on the EU drug market in 2023.
Despite the emergence of fewer new substances, the quantities reported by law enforcement as imports and seizures have reached unprecedented levels. The quantities reported annually increased by 10 tonnes to 37 tonnes in 2023 in the European Union, with preliminary data indicating continued large quantities through 2024. Most of this involved a small number of bulk imports from India, primarily through the Netherlands. Following recent control measures in the Netherlands on 3-MMC and 3-CMC, evidence suggests 2-MMC is emerging as a replacement. Although not nationally representative, data from 12 drug checking services in 10 EU Member States from the first half of 2024 suggest that half of the samples (powders and tablets) sold as 3-MMC contain 2-MMC instead. As an indication of intentional purchase, of all samples found to contain cathinones, 88 % (558) were submitted as such, while the presence of cathinones in the remaining 12 % (76) of samples, mostly MDMA, was the result of mis-selling or adulteration.
Large seizures of precursors in 2023 suggest that the production of synthetic cathinones remains significant within the European Union, particularly in Poland (Figure 7.3). The size and scale of the production sites reported as dismantled by law enforcement vary from ‘kitchen-scale’ laboratories to higher-throughput facilities, but have been increasing since 2021 (see also Drug supply, production and precursors – the current situation in Europe).
Note: Seizure by the Central Bureau of Police Investigation.
While 3-MMC and 3-CMC have dominated the market in recent years, less common cathinones such as alpha-pyrrolidinoisohexanophenone (alpha-PHiP, sometimes sold as ‘Flakka’) and N-ethylnorpentedrone (NEP) can create localised health problems. These smaller-scale trends may miss early detection by public health agencies, potentially causing serious harm before being identified. The EUDA has recently undertaken risk assessments of three new synthetic cathinones: 2-methylmethcathinone (2-MMC), 4-bromomethcathinone (4-BMC), N-ethylnorpentedrone (NEP).
Life-threatening nitazene opioids still appearing on the EU drug market
New synthetic opioids are often highly potent, meaning a small amount can be sufficient to produce a large number of typical street doses and can pose an increased risk of life-threatening poisoning. Since 2012, two distinct waves of potent opioids have posed a threat to public health in Europe. The first, between 2012 and 2019, was caused by 38 fentanyl derivatives and drove at least 8 documented poisoning outbreaks, resulting in an estimated 285 deaths. Legal controls in the United States, Europe and China led to the rapid disappearance of these drugs. Since 2019, they have been replaced by highly potent benzimidazole ‘nitazene’ opioids. Recent data suggest that the availability and risks associated with nitazene opioids are growing.
Seven new synthetic opioids were formally notified in 2024 to the EU Early Warning System, all of which were nitazenes, the highest number notified in a single year. Since 2019, at least 21 EU Member States have now reported the presence of a nitazene.
Nitazene opioids have been linked to drug-induced deaths in Europe, with reports from 2023 from Estonia (62 out of 119 deaths) and Latvia (101 out of 154 deaths) indicating that these substances account for an increasing share of overdose deaths in these countries. Due to their high potency and novelty, there are concerns that nitazene opioids may not be routinely detected in procedures commonly used for post-mortem toxicology. At least 159 deaths were associated with fentanyl and fentanyl derivatives in Europe in 2022. Many of these were associated with fentanyl diverted from medical use as opposed to fentanyl produced for the illicit drug market.
In 2023, the quantity of nitazene powders detected in Europe tripled to 10 kilograms, compared with 2022. Reports to the EU Early Warning System also suggest a recent significant increase in the availability of fake medicines containing nitazene opioids in Europe. These products typically mimic legitimate prescription medications, particularly oxycodone and to a lesser extent benzodiazepines such as diazepam and alprazolam. The seemingly legitimate appearance of these tablets might also intensify potential health threats by contributing to a false sense of security among people who use them. While generally taken by high-risk opioid users, there are concerns about their potential to spread to broader populations without opioid tolerance, including young people (Figure 7.4). During 2023, authorities in 8 countries confiscated nearly 24 000 nitazene-containing tablets, compared to just 430 tablets in 2022. Preliminary data from 2024 support this trend, with over 50 000 tablets seized in 9 EU Member States. While the number of seizures remains relatively small, these data may suggest potential market expansion for these life-threatening substances. These fake medicines pose a significant risk of severe poisoning due to the high potency of nitazenes, particularly for individuals without opioid tolerance. In June 2024, Ireland reported approximately 20 non-fatal overdose cases linked to counterfeit benzodiazepine tablets containing protonitazene.
Source: Swedish Customs Laboratory.
The European opioid landscape continues to face potential shifts arising from international developments. The Taliban’s ban on opium poppy cultivation in Afghanistan since April 2022 has significantly reduced opium production, but the extent to which this might constrain heroin supply to Europe still remains unclear as opium stocks exist within Afghanistan. Any potential supply gap could, in some countries, be filled by new synthetic opioids and other substances. However, China’s expanded control of nitazene opioids in 2024, now covering 10 substances, may redirect the market away from dominant compounds such as metonitazene and protonitazene and towards novel derivatives or alternative opioid families. For example, since mid-2024, there has been a small but significant increase in detections of substances belonging to the ‘orphine’ family, with 5 countries reporting cychlorphine (a benzimidazolone) and 2 detecting spirochlorphine (a spirotriazole). While no pharmacological data are currently available for these substances, their structural similarity to brorphine, a potent opioid, suggests that a key health risk is likely to be respiratory depression (see also Heroin and other opioids – the current situation in Europe).
These developments underscore key preparedness challenges, with a critical need for the European Union, as well as the national early warning systems and their associated laboratory networks, to maintain readiness to detect and address emerging nitazene derivatives and other new synthetic opioids. More generally, the availability of highly potent synthetic opioids requires us to review whether the current approaches used to prevent, treat and reduce the harms related to opioid use remain fit for purpose. For example, it has been suggested that approaches to providing the opioid antidote naloxone need to be reviewed, as models of care may need to be adapted to more effectively respond to those who have consumed new synthetic opioids or mixtures that contain new synthetic opioids and other substances (see also Opioid agonist treatment – the current situation in Europe and Harm reduction – the current situation in Europe).
See also the 2024 EUDA-Europol EU Drug Market: New psychoactive substances – In-depth analysis and the EUDA’s Health and social responses to drug problems.
Key data and trends
New psychoactive substances reported
- At the end of 2024, the EUDA was monitoring 1000 new psychoactive substances, 47 of which were first reported in Europe in 2024 (Figure 7.5 and Table 7.1).
- Approximately 350 new psychoactive substances were detected in seizures in 2023 (Figure 7.6).
- In 2024, the EU Early Warning System received reports of 20 new cannabinoids, bringing the total number being monitored to 277.
- Since 2009, a total of 88 new opioids have been identified on the European drug market, with 7 new substances notified in 2024, all of which were highly potent nitazene opioids, which can be hundreds of times more potent than heroin. To date, 22 nitazenes have been identified in Europe (Figure 7.7).
Seizures of new psychoactive substances
- In 2023, EU Member States accounted for 33 710 of the 110 868 seizure or import cases of new psychoactive substances reported in the European Union, Norway and Türkiye, representing 99.9 % of the 41.4 tonnes reported (30.5 tonnes in 2023) (Figure 7.8). The increase was driven by a small number of cases involving cathinones (3-CMC, 2-MMC) (Figure 7.9). In addition, 1286 litres of liquids containing new psychoactive substances were seized, mainly GBL (437 litres) and 3-CMC (432 litres).
- In 2023, just 4 substances accounted for almost 90 % of the quantity of new psychoactive substances reported by EU law enforcement: 3 cathinones (3-CMC, 2-MMC and N-ethylnorpentedrone, amounting to 33.8 tonnes) and ketamine (2.9 tonnes, comparable to the 2.8 tonnes reported in 2022) (Figure 7.9).
- In 2023, 24 countries reported seizing 81 kilograms (234 kilograms in 2022) of synthetic cannabinoids and 181 kilograms (47 kilograms in 2022) of semi-synthetic cannabinoids as herbal material. The quantity of synthetic cannabinoid powder seized decreased significantly, from 503 kilograms in 2022 to 10 kilograms in 2023. With 149 kilograms and 210 litres, HHC accounted for most of the semi-synthetic cannabinoids seized. Low-THC herbal cannabis products containing synthetic cannabinoids or semi-synthetic cannabinoids accounted for around 50 % of the seized material, amounting to 131 kilograms (76 kilograms in 2022), reported by 15 countries.
- In 2023, countries reported 927 seizures and 22 kilograms of synthetic opioids to the EU Early Warning System, an increase from the 17 kilograms seized in 2022. Notably, the quantity of nitazenes seized tripled, from 3 to 10 kilograms seized in 2023. Of the seizures of new opioids reported, 24 % contained carfentanil, 24 % contained protonitazene, 23 % contained metonitazene and 20 % contained tramadol. A total of 22 kilograms of material was seized, with 32 % (7.0 kilograms) containing carfentanil, 29 % (6.4 kilograms) containing protonitazene and 22 % (4.8 kilograms) containing tramadol. Most of the synthetic opioid seizures occurred in northern Europe, with Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania reporting 77 % of the seizures and 76 % (16.7 kilograms) of the quantity seized. Spain reported 4.6 % of the seizures of synthetic opioids, and 21 % (4.7 kilograms) of the quantity seized, mainly due to two seizures of tramadol.
Prevalence of new psychoactive substances use
- National estimates of last year use of new psychoactive substances (excluding ketamine and GHB) among young adults (aged 15 to 34) range from 0.1 % in Latvia and Norway to 5.1 % in Romania.
- The 2024 ESPAD school survey estimated that among 15- to 16-year-old students in the European Union, the average lifetime use of new psychoactive substances was 2.6 %, ranging from 0.6 % to 6.4 %, with lifetime use ranging from 1.0 % to 16 % for synthetic cannabinoids, 0.4 % to 3.7 % for synthetic cathinones and 0.6 % to 2.2 % for synthetic opioids. The average prevalence of lifetime use of new psychoactive substances was the same for boys and girls.
- In the 2024 European Web Survey on Drugs, a non-representative survey of people who use drugs, 16 % of respondents had used new psychoactive substances in the last 12 months. Of them, 21 % reported using the substances alongside herbal cannabis and 15 % with MDMA/ecstasy in the last episode of use. With regard to use of individual substances in the last 12 months, 14 % of respondents reported having used semi-synthetic cannabinoids, 3 % synthetic cannabinoids and 9 % synthetic cathinones. Around 70 % of the participants who used new psychoactive substances stated that they consumed the drug ‘to get high or for fun’.
Abbreviations
| Abbreviation | Chemical name |
|---|---|
| 4-BMC | 4-bromomethcathinone |
| 2-MMC | 2-methylmethcathinone |
| 3-CMC | 3-chloromethcathinone |
| HHC-O | hexahydrocannabinol acetate |
| HHC-P | hexahydrocannabiphorol |
| HHC-P-O-A | hexahydrocannabiphorol acetate |
| delta-9-THC | delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol |
| delta-9-THCP | delta-9-tetrahydrocannabiphorol |
| CBD | cannabidiol |
| CBG | cannabigerol |
| GBL | gamma-butyrolactone |
| HHC | hexahydrocannabinol |
Source data
The complete set of source data for the European Drug Report 2025, including metadata and methodological notes, is available in our data catalogue.
A subset of this data, used to generate infographics, charts and similar elements on this page, may be found below.