Drug supply, production and precursors – the current situation in Europe (European Drug Report 2025)

Analysis of the supply-related indicators for commonly used illicit drugs in the European Union suggests that availability remains high across all substance types. On this page, you can find an overview of drug supply in Europe based on the latest data, supported by the latest time trends in drug seizures and drug law offences, together with 2023 data on drug production and precursor seizures.

This page is part of the European Drug Report 2025, the EUDA’s annual overview of the drug situation in Europe.

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Last update: 5 June 2025

Resilient production and trafficking drive higher drug availability in Europe

Europe’s illicit drug market

Analysis of supply-related indicators for illicit drugs in the European Union suggests that availability remains high across all substance types. In addition, the market is characterised by the widespread availability of a broader range of drugs, often available at high potency or purity, potentially increasing risks to health. These include novel substances, where both consumer and scientific knowledge about the health risks may be limited. For some drugs, there is a growing diversification of consumer products available on the market (such as oils, extracts, edibles and vaping products). These developments raise concerns about increased substance use overall and growing risks, especially for vulnerable groups facing social and economic hardship. A source of particular worry are the increased risks, including poisonings and deaths, from consuming, possibly unknowingly, in drug mixtures and tablets, high-potency or novel substances, especially in the context of polysubstance use.

Drug trafficking networks exploit commercial cross-border trade

Globalisation has had a significant impact on drug availability in Europe, as criminals exploit the increased opportunities for trafficking illicit drugs provided by more interconnected communication, trade and transport networks. The infiltration of maritime shipping routes and the illicit trafficking of bulk quantities of drugs in commercial intermodal shipping containers continues to fuel Europe’s drug market. Globalised trade is exploited to facilitate the purchase of chemicals and equipment used in illicit drug production. The ongoing compromising of commercial trade infrastructure not only sustains the flow of illicit drugs into and out of the European Union, but has also led to closer involvement of European drug producers and traffickers with international criminal networks. As a result, Europe’s drug market is fed and shaped by a dynamic and intricate web of global supply chains, which involves key source countries for drugs, precursors, essential chemicals and equipment. Shifts in the nodes of the supply chain are triggered by various factors, including disruption from customs and law enforcement operations, regulatory measures and geopolitical developments. Various countries in South America, West and South Asia and North Africa remain major sources for illicit drugs entering Europe, such as cocaine, heroin and cannabis resin, while China and India remain important source countries for new psychoactive substances. India, in particular, has emerged as an important source of some substances, such as synthetic cathinones, which are also to some extent produced within Europe. Drug precursors and related chemicals are also often reported to be sourced from China. In addition, Canada and the United States, which have commercial cannabis markets, are sources of various cannabis consumer products.

The scale and resilience of illicit drug trafficking via global commercial supply chains are reflected in the large volumes of illicit drugs that continue to be seized in Europe’s ports. For example, in 2024, Spain reported its largest ever seizure of cocaine in a single shipment – 13 tonnes, concealed in bananas originating in Ecuador. Germany seized 43 tonnes of cocaine in 2023, as large consignments amounting to 25 tonnes were seized in the Port of Hamburg that year, double the quantity reported in 2022 (Figure 1.1). This is emblematic of how criminal networks continue to target legitimate commercial infrastructure to traffic illicit drugs. The infiltration of supply chains and the exploitation of key staff through the use of intimidation and corruption, particularly in shipping ports, is now well documented in Europe. Overall, a significant proportion of the total quantity of drugs seized in the European Union was detected by customs and law enforcement in maritime ports. Responding to this, the 2023 EU Roadmap against drug trafficking outlined measures to enhance customs risk management and the detection of drugs and precursors. These include enhancing the interoperability of customs information systems among EU Member States and supporting the deployment of advanced container-scanning equipment. The Roadmap also supports the European Ports Alliance, a public-private partnership approach designed to increase the resilience of Europe’s key logistical centres against drug trafficking and infiltration by criminal networks. Various actions are being implemented to support best practices and recommendations from the 2023 Schengen Thematic Evaluation on drug trafficking in ports. Among these are measures in cooperation with international partners and actions aimed at disrupting the trafficking of drugs on Europe’s rail and road networks. Criminal networks use multiple modi operandi (Figure 1.2) to evade detection. While trafficking larger drug consignments by sea fuels drug availability in Europe, trafficking also takes place through a range of other methods over land and air, including commercial and private methods for transportation, letters and parcels.

Note: Seizure by Baden-Württemberg State Criminal Police.

The European Union has consistently placed evaluation as a key phase in the development and assessment of its strategies for addressing the illicit drugs phenomenon. Both organised crime and drug-trafficking are key topics addressed in the forthcoming external evaluation of the EU drugs strategy and action plan 2021-25 and the 2025 ProtectEU – A European Internal Security Strategy.

Operation of drug markets fuels drug-related intimidation and violence

The recruitment and exploitation of young people by criminal networks in the illicit drug trade is a cause of increasing concern. Criminal networks target vulnerable young people both in person and online, recruiting them to perform various roles, such as working as drug couriers, and, in some extreme cases, to take part in violence and drug-related homicides. This has contributed to a growing recognition of the need to do more to counter the violence, corruption and criminal exploitation associated with the functioning of the illicit drug market. While documented and perceived drug-related violence, especially more extreme occurrences, may in the past have been typically associated with locations such as ports and their environs that are used to facilitate wholesale drug trafficking, this is no longer necessarily the case. Violence and intimidation related to the operation of illicit drug markets are now increasingly experienced in smaller cities and municipalities across Europe, undermining the safety of local communities. While most of the violence appears to be concentrated within or between criminal networks, others can become victims of drug-related intimidation and violence at various levels, with individuals and families targeted for amassing drug debts. In some cases, people may be forced into trafficking drugs. These issues reflect the complex nature of drug-related intimidation and violence, and the way boundaries can become blurred between who is considered to be a victim of an organised crime group and who is considered to be an employee of one, raising complex legal issues. Various European initiatives have been addressing this issue, including the inauguration of a European Judicial Organised Crime Network, based at Eurojust, which aims to strengthen judicial coordination between the prosecutors and judges in EU Member States. The EUDA has launched a new project to better understand the nature of drug market-related violence in Europe, to provide decision-makers with the best available information on how to tackle this issue. As part of this effort, and in collaboration with the European Commission, the EUDA organised the first European conference on drug-related violence in Brussels in November 2024. The conference addressed the different aspects of drug-related violence, balancing both health and security concerns, and promoting community safety and public health. This event highlighted the need to improve monitoring and data collection at European level and to establish a regular forum for exchanging ideas and best practices to support evidence-based policy-making in this area (see also EU Drug Markets and Europol’s Serious Organised Crime Threat Assessment).

Drug supply dynamics continue to adapt to geopolitical developments

A key challenge in countering the production and flow of illicit drugs is the ability of criminal networks to rapidly adapt to disruption from policing, security and legislative measures. Disruption may also arise from geopolitical developments, internal or regional conflicts and changes in trade routes. For example, conflict, state destabilisation and insecurity in some South American countries are likely to have contributed to the increased availability of cocaine for trafficking to the European Union by criminal networks.

In Afghanistan, the Taliban gained control of the country in 2021 and announced a ban in 2022 on all drugs, including poppy cultivation and morphine/heroin processing. This has raised concerns regarding the potential for a heroin shortage in Europe, with various other drugs, including synthetic opioids, potentially filling the gap in the market in some countries. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) estimated that there was a 95 % drop in opium cultivation in 2023, to 10 800 hectares, down from 232 000 hectares in 2022. More recent UNODC figures suggest that poppy cultivation remained at very low levels in 2024, at 12 800 hectares. However, despite the difficulties of obtaining an accurate picture, it is clear that significant opium stocks still exist in Afghanistan and some of its neighbouring countries. This has meant that the production and trade in opiates has continued in the country, reflecting a high level of adaptability and risk-mitigation by drug producers and traffickers in the region. To better understand developments in Afghanistan and potential impacts on health and security in Europe, the EUDA has launched a new project in this area. Although the full impact of the ban on all drugs, including poppy cultivation and morphine/heroin processing, on Europe’s drug market is not yet evident, if the ban continues to be strictly enforced, it is likely to affect the availability of heroin in Europe in the coming years. Nonetheless, the effects of any heroin shortage are unlikely to be experienced uniformly by all countries, as users turn to replacement substances. For this reason, countries with an established heroin problem should be alert to any signs of its replacement by synthetic opioids or stimulants.

Drug production within the European Union

Europe remains an important production region for various illicit drugs, with EU Member States reporting the dismantling of thousands of cannabis cultivation sites each year. Cannabis produced in the European Union is generally for domestic consumption. Synthetic drugs, such as MDMA, amphetamine and methamphetamine, have been produced in the European Union for domestic markets and export to non-EU markets for many years. Illicit drug production within the European Union poses significant risks to public health and safety. These risks affect not only the consumers of these substances, but also local communities near production or waste dumping sites, who may be exposed to toxic chemicals, fires and explosions. Law enforcement teams involved in dismantling these sites also face considerable risks. The production of synthetic drugs results in the disposal of toxic chemical waste, causing lasting environmental damage. Due to the scale of synthetic drug production within the European Union, significant policy concerns have been raised about the potentially substantial environmental harms caused, for example, by soil and groundwater contamination and air pollution. In response, the EUDA has launched a project to develop a better understanding of key issues in this area and to respond to concerns raised by policymakers.

The illicit drug production facilities dismantled in the European Union in 2023 were involved in the production of a wide variety of substances, including amphetamine, methamphetamine, synthetic cathinones, MDMA, cocaine and heroin (Figure 1.3). The size and scale of these production sites range from low-volume ‘kitchen-scale’ laboratories, to high-throughput facilities operated by multiple ‘cooks’, capable of producing tens of kilograms of drugs per batch in special reactors. In smaller sites, production appears to be destined mostly for local markets and, occasionally, for sale on the darknet. Although information is limited, larger production sites appear to supply both local and non-EU markets. Large-scale synthetic drug production laboratories have mostly been found in Belgium and the Netherlands, although large production sites for synthetic cathinones have also been identified in Poland. Some laboratories may be used to produce multiple substances, such as synthetic stimulants that have similar requirements for chemicals and manufacturing equipment. Reporting on the nature of multi-drug laboratories and the precise details of substances produced can be challenging. Furthermore, it can be difficult to estimate the total production capacity of individual dismantled laboratories.

The detection of separate facilities for cocaine production, extraction, cutting and packaging in recent years suggests innovative methods are being used to facilitate the trafficking of this drug to Europe. A significant concern is the emergence of cocaine hydrochloride production in Europe, which appears to be larger and more sophisticated than was previously thought. Reasons for this likely include the economic advantage of controlling part of the production process in Europe and the comparatively easier access to processing chemicals such as solvents, oxidising agents and reducing agents. Overall, based on the information available, it appears that large amounts of cocaine hydrochloride are now processed in Europe, mostly in Belgium, the Netherlands and Spain, from intermediary products (coca paste and cocaine base) trafficked from South America.

Developments in drug production in Europe underscore how technology and innovation are key drivers of higher outputs, increased potency or purity, and a broader range of consumer products. Innovation in production processes is evident from seizures of chemicals that can be used to manufacture the precursor chemicals needed to produce amphetamine, methamphetamine and MDMA. This illustrates how criminal networks attempt to evade legislative and customs controls by resorting to alternative chemicals. Overall, the use of a wider range of chemicals to produce new substances and pursue different synthesis processes continues to present a complex challenge for customs, law enforcement agencies and regulators. Large seizures of precursors in 2023 continue to suggest that the production of synthetic cathinones is significant, particularly in Poland and the Netherlands.

Record quantities of precursor chemicals were seized in the European Union in 2023 (Figure 1.4). While the total amount of scheduled precursors and key non-scheduled chemicals seized each year between 2012 and 2022 rarely exceeded 100 tonnes, and averaged around 54 tonnes, this figure reached 178 tonnes in 2023. The increase was primarily driven by large seizures of alternative precursors for the manufacture of amphetamine, methamphetamine and MDMA in the Netherlands and Hungary. Both of these countries seized large quantities of BMK glycidic derivatives and PMK glycidic derivatives, which are used to produce BMK and PMK – the controlled precursors needed to make amphetamines and MDMA, respectively. Methylamine, another essential precursor for methamphetamine and MDMA production, was also seized in significant quantities, with 30 tonnes reported in 2023 – the highest level since 2013. Seizures of ethyl acetate, a solvent used in cocaine processing, reached 28 000 litres in 2023, representing a rebound to the quantities seized between 2019 and 2021, after a significant decrease in 2022. This indicates that cocaine extraction and processing continue to take place within the European Union.

As criminal networks continue to adapt by using alternative chemicals to circumvent controls, efforts at the EU level are increasingly focused on strengthening measures to counter the rapid innovation seen in illicit drug production. For example, the EU Roadmap Against Drug Trafficking facilitates more rapid control of precursors at EU level to match the pace of criminal innovation. It does so by extending scheduling to cover known derivatives and related chemicals that can be converted into or substituted for established drug precursors. The EUDA, under its new mandate, is also playing a greater role in supporting the European Commission in the monitoring, scheduling and threat assessment of precursors. By the end of January 2025, at the request of the European Commission, the EUDA had risk-assessed eight cathinone precursors, associated with the production of 4-MMC, 4-CMC, 3-MMC and 3-CMC, in addition to one amphetamine precursor. These were the first formal precursor assessments ever made at EU level.

Key data and trends

Drug supply trends

• Indexed trends, overall, show that the quantities of drugs seized in the European Union increased between 2013 and 2023, particularly in the past 6 years, although there has been some fluctuation in the quantities of amphetamine and methamphetamine seized in the last 4 years and a decrease of MDMA (ecstasy) since 2019 (Figure 1.5). Importantly, the quantities of drugs seized should be considered minimum estimates, as there are some gaps in reporting at Member State level.

• Between 2013 and 2023, the largest increases in quantities seized have been for cocaine (+581 %), methamphetamine (+248 %), MDMA (+226 %), amphetamine (+122%) and herbal cannabis (+96%). Sizeable consumer markets for these drugs exist in Europe. However, it is likely that increases in quantities seized also reflect, at least partially, the increasing role played by Europe as a place of production, export and transit for these drugs.
• Interpreting trends in drug seizures is complicated by the fact that they are influenced by policing and law enforcement strategies and priorities, the success or otherwise of trafficking networks to avoid detection, and any underlying change in availability and use.
• An estimated 1.2 million seizures were reported in 2023 in the European Union, with cannabis products being the most frequently seized, accounting for 69 % of all reported seizures (Figure 1.6 and Figure 1.7).

• In terms of numbers, fewer seizures were made in 2023 than in 2013 of cannabis resin (−12 %), herbal cannabis (−29 %) and heroin (−33 %) (Figure 1.8).
• Increases were observed in the number of seizures between 2013 and 2023 for methamphetamine (+184 %), MDMA (+54 %), cocaine (+41 %) and amphetamine (+9 %).

Drug law offences trends

• In 2023, an estimated 1.6 million drug law offences were reported in the European Union, an increase of 30 % since 2013. More than three quarters of these offences (78 % or 1.3 million) relate to use or possession for personal use.
• Of the estimated 1.6 million drug law offences, the drug mentioned in the offence is reported in just under 1.3 million offences, of which almost 1.1 million were for possession or use, 203 000 were for supply-related offences and 14 000 were for other types of offences (Figure 1.9). Definitions of what constitutes a supply-related offence may vary between countries.

• With approximately 615 000 reported offences in 2023, cannabis accounted for 58 % of the use or possession offences for which the drug is known and around 100 000 of the drug supply offences (49 %). The predominance of cannabis in both supply and possession offences reflects the size of the cannabis consumer market; it may also attest to the policy importance of this drug.
• Both drug possession and drug supply offences remain at higher levels than in 2013 for all drugs apart from heroin-related possession offences (Figure 1.10 and Figure 1.11).

EU production and precursors data for 2023

• Cannabis: EU Member States reported 9800 seizures of cannabis plants, amounting to 2.3 million individual plants and 11 tonnes in 2023 (3.4 million plants and 6.5 tonnes in 2022). In 2023, around 4000 illicit cannabis cultivation sites were dismantled in 11 EU Member States, according to data obtained from open sources and national partners.
• Heroin: Fourteen heroin production sites were dismantled in the European Union in 2023 (10 in the Netherlands, 3 in Greece, 1 in France). All locations appeared to operate as cutting and packaging sites for blocks of heroin, likely for sale to both EU and non-EU countries, especially the United Kingdom. In addition, Czechia reported dismantling two unspecified opioid sites. Only two seizures of the heroin precursor chemical acetic anhydride were reported in the European Union in 2023, both by the Netherlands, amounting to 740 litres (141 litres in 2022, 5730 litres in 2021). Worldwide, seizures of acetic anhydride have been declining substantially since 2019. While the cause of this decrease is unknown, it may indicate a decline in attempts at diverting and trafficking the substance, a shift to other trafficking routes or increased use of alternative production processes or chemicals. Acetyl chloride is one such chemical, 17 kilograms of which was seized in the Netherlands in 2023.
• Cocaine: In 2023, at least 34 sites related to cocaine production were dismantled in the European Union (39 in 2022). The increase in the quantity of potassium permanganate seized in 2023 (2082 kilograms) compared with 2022 (173 kilograms) indicates that large-scale processing of cocaine hydrochloride, from imported intermediary products (such as cocaine base and paste), continues to take place in the European Union. For example, 6 of these sites were dismantled in Portugal in 2023 and 2024, leading to the seizure of tens of kilograms of cocaine paste and cocaine hydrochloride, large quantities of chemicals and cutting agents as well as custom-made equipment. In addition, several large seizures have been reported involving unusual substances that contain cocaine (such as cardboard, coal and plastics), requiring chemical extraction to retrieve the drug.
• Amphetamine: In 2023, 10 EU Member States reported dismantling 93 amphetamine laboratories (108 in 2022): the Netherlands (38), Germany (21), Poland (19), Belgium (5), Austria (3), Sweden (2), Lithuania (2), Bulgaria (1), Czechia (1), Finland (1).
• Methamphetamine: Seven EU Member States reported dismantling 250 methamphetamine laboratories in 2023 (242 in 2022): Czechia (189), the Netherlands (29), Bulgaria (18), Germany (5), Poland (5), Belgium (3), Austria (1). Seizures of the precursors needed to synthesise methamphetamine via the ‘ephedrine method’ (namely ephedrine and pseudoephedrine), amounting to 7847 kilograms (both powders and tablets), were reported by 16 EU Member States in 2023 (352 kilograms by 15 EU Member States in 2022).
• BMK can be used as a starting material to produce both amphetamine and methamphetamine. In 2023, 5453 litres of BMK (1329 litres in 2022 and close to 5100 litres in 2021) and 66.2 tonnes of substances (26.6 tonnes in 2022) that can be used to produce BMK were seized in the European Union. These seizures included 66.1 tonnes of glycidic derivatives of BMK (25.6 tonnes in 2022), 43 kilograms of MAPA (379 kilograms in 2022) and 1.2 kilograms of APAA and APAAN (500 kilograms of APAAN in 2022). Two new alternative chemicals that can also be used to make BMK, DEPAPD and DEPAPD enolate, were seized in 2023 (54 litres, compared to 113 litres in 2022). In addition, seizures of tartaric acid, a chemical that allows the retrieval of the most potent form of methamphetamine (d-methamphetamine, used for ‘crystal meth’) from mixtures produced by BMK methods, reached 10.9 tonnes in 2023 (2.6 tonnes in 2022) and were reported by Belgium and the Netherlands. This suggests that large-scale production of d-methamphetamine continues to take place in Europe.
• MDMA: In 2023, two EU Member States reported dismantling 36 MDMA laboratories (48 in 2022). Belgium reported 4 MDMA laboratories in 2023 (27 in 2022), with the Netherlands reporting 32. Seizures of MDMA precursors increased to 64.1 tonnes in 2023 (20.5 tonnes in 2022). Seizures of the MDMA precursor PMK and its glycidic derivatives surpassed 63.1 tonnes in 2023 (19.9 tonnes in 2022). Other alternative chemicals were also reported: a larger quantity of MAMDPA was seized in 2023 compared to 2022 (565 kilograms and 37 kilograms respectively, although 4.5 tonnes was seized in 2021), and IMDPAM was reported seized for the first time in 2023 (450 kilograms). These reports of increased seizures of MDMA precursors, combined with information about MDMA exports outside the European Union, may reflect an increase in the production of the drug for global markets and a general rebound following a decline related to the COVID-19 pandemic.
• Cathinones: In 2023, 53 synthetic cathinone production sites (20 of 4-MMC, 7 of 3-CMC, 24 of 4-CMC, 1 of alpha-PVP and 1 of an unspecified cathinone) were reported by 6 EU Member States: 40 in Poland (23 in 2022), 8 in the Netherlands (6 in 2022), 2 in Germany, and single production sites in Belgium, Austria and Sweden. Seizures of synthetic cathinone precursors amounted to 2153 kilograms in 2023 (558 kilograms in 2022), mainly in the Netherlands (1416 kilograms) and Poland (735 kilograms). Additional seizures may have occurred at one of several large-scale cathinone production sites reported in 2023.
• Synthetic opioids: At present, the production of synthetic opioids, including new synthetic opioids, appears to be marginal in EU Member States. Nonetheless, there are some concerning signals. In 2024, one large clandestine methadone production facility was identified in Poland (Figure 1.12), which led to the seizure of 195 kilograms of crystal methadone. Eight sites where methadone and synthetic cathinones were produced side by side were discovered in Poland and Ukraine in 2024, some of which may have been destined for the Ukrainian market. At the end of 2024, four seizures of the fentanyl precursor N-boc-4-piperidone were reported by two EU Member States (Spain, Netherlands).
• Ketamine: In 2023, 6 ketamine laboratories were dismantled in the European Union. They were typically engaging in the crystallisation of bulk ketamine powders.
• Dumping sites: In 2023, Belgium (45) and the Netherlands (191) accounted for the 236 dumping sites for drug production waste and equipment reported in the European Union (194 in 2022).

Note: Seizure by the Central Bureau of Police Investigation, Poland and Department of Drug Crime of the National Police of Ukraine.

The EUDA and Europol’s EU Drug Markets: In-depth analysis provides further detailed information on the production and trafficking of illicit drugs.

Source data

The data used to generate infographics and charts on this page may be found below.

The complete set of source data for the European Drug Report 2024, including metadata and methodological notes, is available in our data catalogue.

A subset of this data, used to generate infographics, charts and similar elements on this page, may be found below.